Miles Bennett
Golf has long been a segregated sport in the United States, with African Americans barred from most country club memberships and golf facilities. The United Golfers Association (UGA) emerged in the 1920s to provide African American golfers with their own organised tour and tournaments, as they were excluded from the Professional Golfers' Association (PGA) tour. In the 1950s, amateur golfer Alfred Tup Holmes challenged segregation on Atlanta's public golf courses, leading to the Holmes v. Atlanta case in 1955, which ruled that Atlanta could not ban African Americans from its municipal golf courses. Despite these efforts, golf continues to struggle with racial diversity, with few Black golfers in the top worldwide rankings and limited African American access to elite country clubs.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Year golf segregation ended | 1951, with some sources stating 1955 |
| Important figures | Alfred "Tup" Holmes, Thurgood Marshall, Tiger Woods, Bill Spiller, Charlie Sifford |
| Cases | Delaney v Central Valley Golf Club (1941), Jones v Attridge and Martha's Vinyard Country Club (1947), Holmes v. Atlanta (1955) |
| Lawsuit filed by Holmes year | 1953 |
| Number of golf facilities opened to Black players in 1939 | < 20 |
| Number of Black men in the top 100 worldwide golf rankings | 2 |
| Number of Black women in the top 300 worldwide golf rankings | 1 |
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What You'll Learn
The United Golfers Association (UGA)
The UGA was off and running by 1926, when professional golfers from across the country gathered at the Mapledale Country Club in Stow, Massachusetts, to compete for a national title. The purse was $100 for the champion, and the course was a simple nine-hole layout. As it came to be known, the National quickly established itself as the major event for African American golfers. The tournament was a proving ground for gifted minorities and a place where Black golfers united in a show of strength and harmony in a segregated America.
The highlight of the tour was the Negro National Open, which helped spur the growth of African American golf clubs around the country. This event became one of the major African American social events during segregation. Ethel Funches, another early black golf pioneer, was an eight-time UGA national champion. Women were allowed to participate from the group's inception, but only in 1939 did the first women's golfing organization seek affiliation when the Chicago Women's Golf Club, organized by Anna Robinson, applied to join.
Golf course segregation was finally ended in 1951, along with some limited tennis court desegregation. The most important of the golf course desegregation cases began in 1955 with Holmes v. Atlanta, which was the first case to apply the Brown v. Board of Education decision to other facilities. In it, the Supreme Court ruled that Atlanta could not ban African Americans from its municipal golf courses and that they could not divide days of play according to race. Once Black golfers had access to courses, and once the PGA opened its tournaments, the need for separate events became a thing of the past.
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Holmes v. Atlanta (1955)
Golf, like many sports in the United States, had a long history of racial segregation. In the early 20th century, African Americans were barred from most golf club memberships, and their involvement in the sport was often limited to serving as caddies. The United Golf Association (UGA), founded in the mid-1920s, provided African American golfers with an opportunity to compete on an organised tour, as they were excluded from the Professional Golfers' Association (PGA) tour.
The case was initially filed in the US District Court in 1953, with attorneys R.E. Thomas, E.E. Moore, Jr., and S.S. Robinson representing the plaintiffs. The lawsuit sought to desegregate public golf courses and parks in Atlanta. However, the district court judge, Boyd Sloan, ruled in 1954 that while African Americans were permitted to play golf on the courses, it would be in accordance with the "separate but equal" doctrine established in Plessy v. Ferguson. The litigants, unhappy with this ruling, appealed to a higher court with the support of the NAACP, which provided resources and legal counsel.
The case eventually reached the US Supreme Court in 1955, with Thurgood Marshall arguing before the court. On November 7, 1955, the Supreme Court ruled in favour of the black golfers, asserting that the lower courts had erred in upholding the "separate but equal" doctrine. The Supreme Court's decision in Holmes v. Atlanta desegregated the public golf courses in Atlanta and prohibited the city from allocating golf courses to different races on different days. This ruling was significant in the civil rights movement and contributed to the broader progress towards racial equality in the United States.
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Black golfers and the PGA
Golf has a long history of racial segregation. In the early 20th century, African Americans were barred from most golf club memberships, and their involvement in the sport was often limited to caddying. The United Golfers Association (UGA) was founded in the mid-1920s to provide African American golfers with a platform to compete on an organised tour. The UGA's tournaments were a significant event for the Black community during segregation, with the Negro National Open being a major social event.
African Americans were excluded from the Professional Golfers' Association (PGA) tour until 1961. Despite the end of segregation, Black golfers continue to face barriers and a lack of representation in the PGA. In the 1980s, most African Americans working in the sport were caddies, and even today, African American access to elite country clubs remains limited.
Some Black golfers have found success and pioneered the integration of the sport. John Shippen was the first, competing in the second U.S. Open in 1896. In 1939, the Wake-Robin Golf Club started with its first president, Helen Webb Harris. In 1948, William Powell's Clearview Golf Club opened to the public as a nine-hole course, making him the only African American to build, own and operate a golf course. In 1955, Holmes v. Atlanta was a landmark case that desegregated public golf courses in Atlanta.
In 1975, Lee Elder became the first African American to play in the Masters, and he went on to win four times on the PGA Tour. In 1986, Harold Dunovant, a Life Member of The PGA of America, established the National Black Golf Hall of Fame. In 2003, Renee Powell was named The PGA's First Lady of Golf, and in 2004, Charlie Sifford became the first African American inducted into the World Golf Hall of Fame.
Despite these achievements, there is still a lack of diversity on the PGA Tour. Tiger Woods' victory in 1997 was a watershed moment, and he remains the only Black golfer to win the Masters. Today, there are only four Black golfers with PGA Tour status out of around 260 regulars. The PGA has made efforts to increase diversity, partnering with the Advocates Pro Golf Association (APGA) and creating a repository for the history of African Americans in golf. However, more needs to be done to encourage and support minority golfers.
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Golf desegregation cases
The desegregation of golf courses in the United States was a long and arduous process, with African Americans facing various forms of discrimination and segregation in the sport for many years.
One of the earliest golf course desegregation cases was Delaney v. Central Valley Golf Club in 1941, which ruled that African Americans could not be banned from playing on municipal courses in New York. Another early case was Jones v. Attridge and Martha's Vineyard Country Club in 1947.
In the 1940s and 1950s, African American golfers continued to pursue legal and political options to desegregate golf courses, with 28 court cases fought between 1941 and 1969. One notable case was filed by Charles Law in 1948 against the City of Baltimore, which had barred African Americans from playing on its municipal courses. The judge ruled in favour of Law, but the solution implemented involved establishing separate tee times for African American and white golfers.
One of the most significant golf course desegregation cases was Holmes v. Atlanta in 1955. Alfred "Tup" Holmes, an amateur golfer, challenged the segregation of Atlanta's public golf courses. The case was first filed in 1953, and initially, the court ruled that the city could maintain separate but equal courses or days for African Americans to play golf. However, the case eventually made its way to the Supreme Court, which ruled that Atlanta could not ban African Americans from its municipal golf courses and could not divide days of play according to race. This case was considered just as significant as Brown v. Board of Education in advancing civil rights.
Another notable case is that of Garth Reeves and other black golfers in Miami, who, with the help of NAACP lawyers, filed suit against the city in 1949 for the right to play golf seven days a week, rather than just on Mondays, the day set aside for black golfers. After seven years of appeals, the Monday-only rule at Miami Springs was dropped by the city in 1957, setting a precedent for future public accommodations cases.
While legal victories were achieved, the integration of golf courses was an ongoing battle, and even today, African American access to elite country clubs remains limited. Nonetheless, pioneers in the sport, such as Althea Gibson, Charlie Sifford, and Tiger Woods, have helped pave the way for increased diversity in golf.
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The legacy of Alfred 'Tup' Holmes
The legacy of Alfred "Tup" Holmes is one of courage, determination, and achievement, and a lasting impact on civil rights. Born in 1917 in East Point, Georgia, Holmes was a successful amateur golfer and civil rights pioneer. He honed his golfing skills from a young age, first learning from his father and the caddies at Candler Park Golf Course, and later as a member of his college golf team at Tuskegee College, where he won numerous tournaments.
Holmes was an African American golfer who, in the context of racial segregation, was restricted to playing at the black-owned Lincoln Country Club. However, Holmes sought to challenge this segregation and gain access to the better-maintained, white-only municipal golf courses in Atlanta. In 1951, Holmes, his brother Oliver, and their father, Dr. Hamilton M. Holmes, were denied a tee time at the Bobby Jones Golf Course. This incident sparked Holmes' determination to file a lawsuit, which opened in the US District Court in 1953.
The case, known as Holmes v. Atlanta, reached the US Supreme Court in 1955 and resulted in a landmark decision. The Court ruled that Atlanta could not ban African Americans from its municipal golf courses and could not divide days of play according to race. This ruling played a crucial role in desegregating public golf courses in Atlanta and contributed to the broader civil rights movement.
Holmes' legacy is honoured through the work of the Alfred Tup Holmes Foundation, which aims to positively influence youth in communities by providing access to golf and educational opportunities. The Foundation has initiatives such as the "Tup" Holmes Golf Academy, which offers K-12 students in underserved neighbourhoods golf lessons and equipment, while also promoting positive values. Additionally, the Alfred "Tup" Holmes Memorial Golf Course in Atlanta's West End showcases a history exhibit of Holmes, including rare photographs and memorabilia. Holmes was also posthumously inducted into the Georgia State Golf Association Hall of Fame in 2012, recognising his pioneering efforts in the sport and the civil rights arena.
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Frequently asked questions
Golf course segregation was ended in 1951, along with some limited tennis court desegregation. However, the Professional Golfers' Association of America (PGA) fought to maintain its all-white status until 1961.
Amateur golfer Alfred "Tup" Holmes is credited with ending segregation on Atlanta's public golf courses in the 1950s. Holmes filed a lawsuit, Holmes v. Atlanta (1955), which is considered the most significant of the golf course desegregation cases.
The Holmes v. Atlanta case resulted in the desegregation of public golf courses in Atlanta. The Supreme Court ruled that Atlanta could not ban African Americans from its municipal golf courses or divide days of play according to race. This case was significant in the fight for civil rights and contributed to progress in this area.
